Tiangong space station is a space station independently designed and developed by China. In order to build and operate the space station, it was necessary to make breakthroughs in many fields and master several key technologies, which were characterized over a long technological span and underwent difficult verifications. Therefore, in addition to ground verification, on-orbit flight tests of key technologies for the assembly, construction and operation of the space station were planned to be conducted used by the core module, taking into account the differences in the gravity environment between space and the Earth, in order to lay a foundation for the subsequent comprehensive assembly, construction and long-term on-orbit operation of the space station. In this paper, the mission characteristics of the space station are briefly introduced, along with the key technologies for the assembly and construction of the space station, and then the on-orbit verification tests are comprehensively introduced.

At present, the moon and Mars are the main focus of deep space exploration, scientific pursuits are the initial goal, and extensive cooperation leads to a greater prospect. China has made many scientific achievements and built considerable infrastructure through its lunar and Mars exploration activities. In the future, China will continue to carry out deep space exploration activities with scientific goals as the driving force, develop the International Lunar Research Station, explore the sun, inner planets and asteroids, discover exoplanets and build an asteroid defence system. 
In order to support future deep space exploration missions, China will construct an integrated communication, navigation and remote sensing constellation and develop heavy-lift launch vehicles. China offers a wide range of opportunities for cooperation, upholds the central role of Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), and welcomes all countries in the world to participate in deep space exploration activities.

China’s first solid-liquid bundled launch vehicle, the Long March 6A (LM-6A) successfully adopted a number of key new technologies, launching the Pujiang 2 and Tiankun 2 satellites precisely into their predetermined orbits, thus demonstrating that China has mastered solid-liquid bundled launch vehicle technology and has a new member in the new generation launch vehicle family. For the first time in China, a booster adopted a 2 m-diameter solid motor and a 270 V, 20 kW high-voltage and high-power electric servo system was used to control the swing of the solid motor nozzles. A health diagnosis system for the core first stage engine and unattended automation technology were also adopted for the first time. 

As the closest celestial body to the Earth, the moon is a hot spot for international space science research at present. Countries around the world have conducted lunar exploration time after time, among which, China’s Lunar Exploration Program has achieved 6 consecutive successful lunar missions. China has made a series of significant achievements in deep space exploration, and its cooperation with international partners is increasingly strengthened. 
In order to gather global space power and scientists’ wisdom, the International lunar Research Station (ILRS) is proposed by China and will be jointly constructed by many countries, which will be equipped with the support capabilities of energy supply, central control, communications and navigation, space-Earth round-trip transportation, lunar surface scientific research, and ground support. All international partners are encouraged to jointly develop and build the ILRS, and to jointly initiate the establishment of the International Lunar Research Station Cooperation Organization (ILRSCO) to achieve the long-term effective, operation and management of the station. The vast universe sparks the exploration dream of humankind, so let’s set sail together.

The Kinetica-1 rocket is designed for small- and medium-sized spacecraft launch missions to sun-synchronous orbit and low Earth orbit. The maiden flight was performed on July 27, 2022. The inetica-1 rocket is characterized by competitive payload capability and cost, robust orbital nsertion accuracy, high reliability, availability at short notice and logistical versatility. 12 new core technologies have been achieved during the development of the rocket. It is of great significance in promoting the innovation of China’s solid carrier rocket technology and science exploration.

The Smart Dragon 3 launch vehicle is a commercial carrier rocket based on the experience with the existing solid-fuel rocket Long March 11 to meet the growing market demand in China for launching commercial satellites to low and medium orbits. The carrier rocket has the characteristics of integral rocket storage, usable for both sea- and land-based launches, rapid response and cost-effectiveness. It is a solid carrier rocket with the largest lift capacity and the largest fairing envelope successfully flown domestically. This paper introduces the main technical index and overall scheme of the rocket. It also introduces the main difficulties encountered in the development of the rocket focusing on the aspects of the thermal emission at sea, the “Big hood” configuration and low commercial cost, as well as the interfaces with satellites. It is expected to provide a better commercial launch service for users through technological and economic integration.

Based on the requirements of manned spaceships, this paper introduces the characteristics of the propulsion system from the perspectives of design scheme, basic composition, safety and reliability measures, and also introduces the ground test verification and on-orbit flight characteristics of the Shenzhou 13 propulsion system. According to the flight results, it was seen that the performance of the Shenzhou 13 propulsion system fully met the engineering requirements for the manned space mission.

China’s ocean satellites are divided into three series based on ocean color satellites (HY-1), ocean dynamic environment satellites (HY-2) and ocean monitoring satellites (HY-3). The three series of ocean satellites operate today in a multi-satellite network. The HY-1D satellite launched in June 2020 and the HY-1C satellite, already in orbit, realized a network observation capability and completed the formation of the ocean color satellite constellation. The HY-2D satellite launched in May 2021 joined the HY-2B and HY-2C satellites, which have been on orbit already and completed a network observation capability, thus establishing the ocean dynamic environment satellite constellation. The GF-3 02 satellite (1 m C-SAR 01) launched in November 2021 has networked with GF-3, initially establishing an ocean monitoring satellite constellation, which has finally completed its construction with the launch of the GF-3 03 satellite (1 m C-SAR 02) in April 2022. The GF-3 three-satellite network effectively boasts a wide capability in applications of satellite data products and services in many fields, such as ocean environmental monitoring, ocean disaster prevention and mitigation, marine scientific research and polar research.

 As China’s only manned launch vehicle, the LM-2F Launch vehicle successfully launched the Shenzhou 12 manned spacecraft into its predetermined orbit on June 12, 2021, signifying the successful completion of the first manned launch mission in the construction and key technology test stage of China Space Station (CSS). From the launch of the Shenzhou 11 manned spacecraft on October 12, 2016 to the launch of Shenzhou 12 in 2021, over the past five years, the LM-2F launch vehicle has been continuously improved in terms of product reliability through technological innovation and design improvement, and its flight reliability index has increased from 0.97 to 0.98. Based on the new launch mission requirements for the construction stage of CSS, this paper introduces the technological innovation and reliability improvement methods of the LM-2F from the aspects of design improvement, research methods and process optimization. The LM-2F launch vehicle will make greater contributions in supporting the construction of CSS with higher reliability and perfect launch success rate.

The solid rocket motors for the escape system of China’s LM-2F manned launch vehicle are described, the key technologies and technical innovations utilized are summarized. The technical features and development of foreign manned launch abort systems are also presented. The development trends of the solid rocket motor for future Chinese manned launch vehicle escape systems are proposed, which can provide a reference for the future development of manned launch vehicle escape systems.

 Non-pyrotechnic separation devices have been fully recognized for their high performance and high reliability. The focus of this paper is mainly around the development of memory alloy satellite and rocket separation devices. Due to the increasing demand for small-sized rockets and satellites, some suggestions and experiments for developing this new type of non-pyrotechnic device are proposed and conducted.

The LM-6A new generation solid-liquid strap-on launch vehicle has the structural dynamic characteristics of lower frequencies, denser modes and coupling modes in longitudinal, bending and torsion modal space. During the development phase of LM-6A, modal tests of partial stacks and the full vehicle were designed to obtain the structural dynamic properties. The structural dynamic models using the finite element method (FEM) have been verified and calibrated based on the modal test data. This paper describes the pre-test predictions and test execution, and details the comparison between the pre-test predictions and the test data. The successful maiden flight of LM-6A further confirmed the effectiveness of structural dynamic modeling and modal test for LM-6A.

In this paper, based upon the characteristics of elastic modal combination of large solid bundled launch vehicles, the finite element theory is used to describe the complex elastic vibration of a solid bundled launch vehicle, and a new three-channel unified elastic vibration equation was established. The elastic vibration equation can reflect the coupling between channels and between boosters and core stage. Some issues need consideration in the theoretical derivation, an engineering application was proposed, and the elastic vibration model was verified. The results of the theoretical derivation and simulation show that the elastic vibration equation of a solid bundled launch vehicle established in the paper is correct and can meet the needs for the engineering application.

The research status on the development of large segmented solid boosters is introduced, showing that the key technologies of the motor have now been acquired and meet the operational requirements of the rocket, which may provide a reference for subsequent development of large segmented solid booster motors and their application in space launchers with solid strap-on boosters.

According to the unattended loading requirements of the new generation launch vehicles, auto-docking technology for the first stage fill-drain connector and zero-second quick detachment technology for the second stage fill-drain connector were proposed based on the analysis and summary of unattended loading connector technology at home and abroad. These technical solutions were verified to be reasonable and feasible by tests, and they had been successfully applied to the Long March 6A (LM-6A), laying a foundation for the unattended test and launch of the new generation launch vehicles.

Based on current research, the development trend of reusable liquid rocket engines was analyzed. Key technologies and research focuses of the reusable liquid rocket engine have been analyzed and summarized, and then suggestions on the development of future key technologies are proposed.

In an era of unprecedented scientific advancements and ambitious space exploration goals, international collaboration has become a key driver of progress. China’s kind and peaceful invitation to engage in collaborative ventures within the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) and deep space exploration project presents a significant opportunity to respond with constructive contributions in engineering and scientific domains. This article aims to illuminate the potential advantages of becoming a partner in the ILRS and deep space exploration project, showcasing a selection of captivating missions that await exploration. By embracing this generous and peace-promoting offer extended by China, the global scientific community can foster meaningful partnerships and achieve groundbreaking advancements in lunar and deep space exploration. China’s resolute dedication to international cooperation in lunar and deep space exploration has resulted in immeasurable contributions, propelling our understanding of the universe and pushing the limits of human knowledge. Through a shared vision, these collective endeavors have brought us closer to unraveling the enigmas of the cosmos and expanding the frontiers of our comprehension. By conducting a series of scientific experiments, Türkiye will actively contribute in the domains of science and technology. Building upon the knowledge and expertise acquired through its own lunar mission, Türkiye has been diligently conducting a comprehensive analysis of the prospective realms of contribution delineated within the ILRS and deep space missions conducted thus far.

In this study, taking China’s Smart Dragon 3 solid launch vehicle, which made its first successful offshore launch on December 9, 2022, as an example, we focus on the technical characteristics and key technologies of various solid motors used for the launch vehicle. The current technological development status is introduced, and the key technologies needed for large solid motors are summarized. For comparison, we also list and analyze the technical characteristics of world-class P80 and P120C solid motors used in ESA’s Vega series of launch vehicles. On this basis, the development trends of large solid motors based on the requirements for launch vehicles is proposed, providing a reference for the development of large solid motor technology for future launch vehicles in China.

This paper investigates the servo mechanism reconfiguration and fault tolerance control issue for a launch vehicle. Firstly, the servo reconfiguration algorithm is considered as an optimization model, and commonly used optimization algorithms are analyzed and compared. An improved method based on Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) for solving the suboptimal solution of the direct assignment problem is proposed, being suitable for engineering application, while maintaining the advantages of existing algorithms. Theoretical analysis and simulation results confirm that the proposed method is able to provide the optimal reconfiguration strategy with higher computational efficiency. Finally, the numerical simulation of launch vehicle fault tolerance control fully verifies the feasibility and effectiveness of the improved method, which indicates that the method met the engineering application conditions.

High-power electric actuators are generally used on solid propellant motors, which further enhances the requirement on onboard supply voltage and output power of a launch vehicle. In this paper, combined with the electrical demand of China’s new generation solid-liquid bundled launch vehicle (LM-6A), high-voltage battery technology, high-power switch control technology, insulation protection technology under low pressure are studied, and the key technologies and schemes are presented. The flight test of LM-6A shows that the high-voltage power supply and distribution technology adopted is reasonable and feasible, and can be used as a reference for the designs of other launch vehicles or spacecrafts.

The 30 kW high-power electric servo system used in the solid booster of the Long March 6A (LM-6A) launch vehicle is introduced, and the function, composition of the system as well as its constituent equipments are detailed. To solve the problem of out-of-tolerance in the system dynamic characteristics, an advanced correction network algorithm architecture and double notch filter were designed. Experimental verification was conducted to prove that the dynamic characteristics requirement under multiple operating conditions could be met.

Compared with using liquid rocket engines, there are a lot of high-temperature solid particles in the solid-liquid bundled rocket, which make the rocket base thermal environment worse. In order to study the influence of high-temperature solid particles on the base thermal environment, firstly, the effect of particle diameter on the jet distribution and the thermal environment in a single solid motor jet was analyzed using a numerical simulation method, and the results were compared with those of a ground test. Further, the effects of high-temperature solid particles on the jet and the thermal environment of the solid-liquid bundled rocket were analyzed and compared with flight data. The results show that high-temperature solid particles can increase the jet temperature and reduce the jet velocity. The larger the particle diameter, the greater the impact on the jet core temperature. The role of high-temperature solid particles cannot be ignored in the study of the base thermal environment.

Mega-constellations of satellites are making a complex network in Low-Earth Orbit (LEO), which presents new legal and technical challenges. The widespread operation of mega-constellations necessitates a special technical and legal regulatory framework that is constantly evolving based on emerging technologies. Although it has not yet been completely established since it is fully dependent on the development of Space Traffic Management (STM), including the rules on space debris mitigation and collision avoidance systems, cyber security issues, environmental concerns, rules of registration, Radio Frequency Interferences (RFI), Space Surveillance & Tracking (SST), etc.
This paper addresses the legal issues of coordinating LEO mega-constellation operations within the framework of STM. The LEO mega-constellations creating the space environment congested necessitates the establishment of STM rules and standards to safeguard the safety, security, and sustainability of outer space activities. To do so, States and the private sector will have to develop effective, safe, and workable mechanisms that will allow space activities in the field of the deployment and operation of satellite constellations while ensuring the sustainability of all space activities on a long-term basis. Moreover, it needs the cooperation of related national and international organizations and other entities, including the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), its Subcommittees, and Internation Telecommunication Union (ITU), to solve the legal and technical challenges of satellite constellations, especially mega-constellations, through the amendment of the current international legal regime, the implementation of a new international treaty, or the creation of soft law documents.

In this paper, the properties of different low-density heat-resistant coating prescriptions were compared, and a heat-resistant coating with a density of 0.65 g/cm3, a tensile strength of 2.04 MPa, and a thermal conductivity of 0.126 W/(m·K) was obtained. The thermal performance of the coating was characterized by an oxygen-acetylene ablation test, a hot radiation test using a quartz lamp and in an arc-heated wind tunnel test. The results indicated that the low-density heat-resistant coating prescription has advantages of high temperature resistance, erosion resistance, ablative resistance and excellent heat resistance, which can satisfy the heat resistance requirements of new-generation launch vehicle fairings.
The successful application of this heat-resistant coating technology resolved the problems of low efficiency and poor adhesive performance of the traditional hand-pasted cork process, and realized the rapid spray application of the thermal protection layer, effectively improved the manufacturing efficiency and production quality of the heat-resistant layer of new-generation launch vehicle fairings.

A virtual thermal test system was built through the co-simulation using Simulink and Comsol to realize the complete virtualization of the thermal test. Using the co-simulation technology, comprehensive simulation analysis of the control system, electric field and thermal field was realized. The data state of each observation point could be directly observed at one time, including the output state information of the power amplifier, the output state information of the heater, and the thermal state information of the test unit. The virtual thermal test system has a predictive and guiding role for engineering thermal tests, and can realize thermal environment simulation beyond the existing thermal environment ground simulation capabilities, providing a basis for the development of future models.

The paper gives a brief review of the upcoming Russian moon and Venus robotic exploration missions, including objectives and cooperation opportunities. It also introduces the joint Russia-China International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) program from perspective of cooperation in space science.

The International Lunar Observatory Association (ILOA) is an inter-global enterprise incorporated in Hawai’i as a non-profit organization in 2007 to advance human understanding the cosmos through observation of the moon, helping to realize long-term astronomical and scientific exploration of the moon’s South Pole, and participate in a human lunar base build-out — with Aloha. ILOA has an international board of 28 Directors from around the world. 
Science education and public engagement have been fundamental principles for ILOA since its inception in 2007.

The pace at which a space agency or any space sector company develops depends greatly on the level of space governance in the nation where it operates and international cooperation. The Venezuelan government is aware of the significance of space activities and impact in growth of the country’s various economic sectors. As the People’s Republic of China expressed interest in transferring technology to Venezuela to build local capabilities for satellite operations in the field of telecommunications and later in the field of remote sensing, cooperation between the two countries has played a significant role in the development of the Venezuelan Space Program. At the moment, Venezuela 
is working to consolidate activities related to the design, assembly, integration, and testing of spacecraft. In the quest to strengthen the ties of cooperation between the two nations, the People’s Republic of China invited the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela during the month of April 2023 to form part of the cooperation on the International Lunar Research Station project, which represents an opportunity for the Latin American country to participate in new projects and be able to contribute in some of the categories established for the mentioned program.

On March 29, 2022, the Long March 6A launch vehicle developed by the Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology successfully made its maiden flight at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center. The Long March 6A launch vehicle was China’s first solid bundled rocket. It uses non-toxic and non-polluting propellants, and has a 700 km sun-synchronous orbit carrying capacity of no less than 4.5 t, which is more than 50% higher than that of a LM-4C launch vehicle. During the development of the LM-6A launch vehicle, the matching relationship between systems and the overall performance of the entire rocket improved significantly through continuous overall optimization work. This paper introduces the typical overall optimization work during the development of the LM-6A launch vehicle.

In recent years, with the development of the world space industry, more and more new spacecraft have been launched to low-Earth orbit. The amount of space debris in space has been increasing year by year, with a net increase in total debris in outer space. It has become a serious environmental problem bringing potentially enormous harm to human activities. The traditional space debris mitigation international mechanism cannot change the status quo of the continuous growth of total space debris, which will have a serious impact on future development and operation in space. Although many countries are actively exploring and researching effective and feasible solutions for space debris, they have not yet developed an international legal mechanism specifically covering the issue of “proactive removal of space debris” to clearly define the responsibilities and obligations for the active removal of space debris. To further implement such a plan, it is necessary for the international community to clarify the international legal responsibility for the active removal of space debris. Therefore, this paper will start with the relevant legal provisions of space debris, analyze the current situation of space debris and the issue and status quo of the active removal of space debris, and further clarify the responsibility and obligation of space debris active removal for each country to actively remove space debris.

In order to improve efficiency of the integrated test of a launch vehicle electrical system while meeting the requirement of high-density, a cloud test platform for the electrical system was designed based on a data-driven approach, using secure private cloud technology and virtualization technology. The platform has a general hardware and software rchitecture, which integrates the functions of graphical editing, automated testing, data processing, fault diagnosis and so on. It can realize multi-task parallel testing. Compared with the traditional test mode, the platform has obvious advantages on testing efficiency and effectiveness.

In the industrial field, tailored blank forming with aluminum alloy (Al-alloy) has developed fast to meet the demands for large size integrated components with curved surfaces of high precision and with uniform mechanical properties. Traditional forming methods for tailored blank components faced challenges with uneven deformation behaviors and coexistence of rupture and wrinkling defects occuring during the forming process. In this paper, a new manufacturing procedure is proposed with advanced welding and forming technologies for forming integrated shell components. Friction stir welding with post-weld heat treatment was employed to prepare the tailor welded blank and improve its formability prior to forming. A double-sided pressure sheet hydroforming process was introduced to fabricate the Al-alloy tailored blank into a curved surface shell. Finite element modeling was established to analyze the effect of the weld line position and loading paths of stress distributions during the double-sided sheet hydroforming (DSHF) process. A large double-action CNC sheet hydroforming press with tonnage of 150 MN and high pressure liquid volume of 5 m3  was developed in China. As an application case of the proposed process and equipment, a full-scale tank dome with a diameter of 3 m was successfully hydroformed with a large size Al-alloy tailored blank. It was shown that the DSHF process has the advantages in controlling rupture and wrinkling defects with an Al-alloy tailored blank, and the novel manufacturing procedure enables the production of integrated thin-walled component more competitively than traditional methods.

Since the official operation of the BeiDou Global Navigation Satellite System (BDS-3), it has played a vital role in the national economy, national defence and security, and to enhance the people’s productivity and life. Based upon the three main characteristics, route design inheritance and development, highly integrated services, and “spiraling” incremental development, this paper introduces the service composition of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and summarizes the evolution of four types of BDS services, that include Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT), message communications, navigation augmentation, and international Search and Rescue (SAR). Moreover, the design features and performance of each service are discussed in detail, and the development trend of BDS services is examined in the light of the latest round of changes in the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Finally, development proposals are proposed, namely, stable operation of the system, enhancement of service performance, and empowerment through integration of multiple means.

Liquid bipropellant attitude control rocket engines are widely used in satellites, manned spaceships, deep space probes and other spacecraft. The performance of an attitude control engine is directly related to the lifetime, control precision and safety of a spacecraft. The study of flow characteristics of an engine transient process is important 
to improve its performance. In this paper, the transient flow test of a transparent test piece was carried out during the starting process of the attitude control engine. Then the transient process of the test piece was simulated and compared with the test results to verify the rationality of the simulation model. Transient flow simulation was carried out for the starting process of the real engine injector. The results show that the filling of the outer ring of the oxidant circuit is slower than that of the central collecting cavity, and the filling of the second layer of the outer ring is slower than that of the first layer. The filling process in the fuel path starts from the cooling hole near the inlet side and the fuel flows out in the circumferential direction. Installation direction has little influence on engine starting flow process in the ground state. 
The filling time of the engine in its vacuum state is longer than that in the ground state, the filling time of oxidizer is 31% longer than that in ground state, and the filling time of fuel is 57% longer than that in ground state.

The slug rivet is widely used in wing assembly due to its longer fatigue life and better sealing performance compared with other connection technologies. As a countersink with dual-angle is widely adopted for this type of connection, the countersink diameter and depth are key factors that affect assembly quality. Therefore, it is of great importance to efficiently inspect the countersink quality to ensure high accuracy. However, contact measurements are susceptible to the loss of accuracy due to cutting debris and lube build-up, while the hole-scanning method using laser profilometry is time consuming and complex. In this paper, a non-contact method for countersink diameter and depth measurement based on a machine vision system is proposed. The countersink diameter can be directly measured by the machine vision system, while the countersink depth is determined through the countersink diameter indirectly. First, by means of image processing technology together with an improved edge detection algorithm, the countersink diameter can be obtained. Then, a 3D microscope is employed to measure the countersink depth, which helps to model the countersink. As a result, once the countersink diameter is measured, so is the depth. The experimentation demonstrated that this method has strong easibility and enables time saving, which is conducive to improve the riveting 
efficiency.

Optimal design of the tank has a significant effect on reducing the weight of a launch vehicle’s structure. In this paper, the key characteristics of a stiffened shell are dentified from the design requirements, focusing on the influence of the internal pressure on the axial compression load-bearing capacity. The computing method of the ultimate load of the stiffened shell, the parametric modeling method and the surrogate modeling technique for optimal design are reviewed. An optimization process applicable to the stiffened shell was developed and applied in the optimization work for the tanks of solid-liquid bundled launch vehicle, so a better weight reduction effect could be achieved.

With the rapid development of intelligent connected vehicles, high-precision 3D navigation has become a key supporting technology. This article conducted a series of drive tests using the high-precision navigation technology of BeiDou and BeiDou+5G hybrid positioning technology, aiming to verify the positioning performance in complex highway traffic environments. The test was conducted on actual roads in Beijing and Hangzhou showed that the positioning accuracy of BeiDou high-precision navigation reached a real-time centimeter level, with a fixed rate of about 95% and a convergence time of less than 2 s. The elevation accuracy of BeiDou+5G hybrid positioning was better than 0.2 m. Combined with three-dimensional high-precision laser point cloud maps, the overlay verification showed that the model can support three-dimensional lane level navigation, verifying the application potential of BeiDou high-precision positioning and BeiDou+5G hybrid positioning technology in the fields of autonomous driving and intelligent connected vehicles.

Acknowledged as a highly versatile manufacturing technology, additive manufacturing holds the potential to transform traditional manufacturing practices in the future. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the latest processes for manufacturing multi-material structural components using additive manufacturing technologies. It discusses the most recent applications of these processes in the fields of automotive, aerospace, biomedical, and dental, and presents a systematic overview of commonly used methods in multi-material additive manufacturing.

This paper examines the interpretation and implementation of the “peaceful purposes” clause as it applies to military activities in outer space, analyzing its legal and political implications within the framework of international space law. The term “peaceful purposes” has long served as a cornerstone in treaties like the Outer Space Treaty (1967), designed to promote the peaceful use of outer space. However, ambiguities in its interpretation have led to diverging views among states, particularly as space activities increasingly intersect with military interests. This study investigates how the peaceful purposes principle has been interpreted in key legal instruments, evaluates how it applies to various military uses of outer space, and assesses the implications of these interpretations for international security and space governance. By examining recent state practices, doctrinal perspectives, and multilateral negotiations, the paper highlights the tension between the principle of non-aggression and the militarization of space, offering insights into potential pathways for legal reform and cooperation. The findings suggest that while the concept of “peaceful purposes” is rooted in non-hostile use, evolving geopolitical dynamics and technological advancements are challenging its application, necessitating clearer legal frameworks to balance national security interests with the pursuit of a sustainable and peaceful outer space environment.