As space activities become increasingly central to global technological and strategic agendas, developing countries are expressing growing interest in acquiring indigenous space capabilities. However, traditional models of international space cooperation—such as satellite exports and technical joint ventures—often fail to align with the resource constraints and capacity needs of these nations. In response, spacefaring countries like Japan and India have implemented innovative, small-scale capacity-building initiatives that offer training, satellite design experience, and in-orbit deployment opportunities to emerging space actors. This study systematically examines these representative programs, identifies their defining characteristics—including cost-efficiency, full financial support, and strong international legitimacy—and assesses their broader diplomatic and strategic impact. Building on this empirical foundation, the study argues for the strategic relevance of space capacity-building as a potential new model of China’s international space cooperation. Through a tripartite analytical framework of rationale, necessity, and feasibility, the study demonstrates that China possesses both the infrastructural foundation and imperative to adopt this model. It further proposes actionable recommendations to institutionalize capacity-building programs, integrate them into flagship national space missions, and align them with China’s broader foreign policy visions. Ultimately, space capacity-building cooperation is positioned as a low-risk, high-impact approach to fostering trust, expanding influence, and promoting global space governance.

Dispute resolution mechanisms play a critical role in sustaining collaborative efforts in space exploration, particularly in partnerships involving diverse stakeholders with varying interests. This study examines the legal framework governing dispute resolution within the Sino-Africa space cooperation, analyzing foundational principles, legal theories, international treaties, national legislation, and tailored conflict-resolution mechanisms. By assessing key legal instruments such as the Outer Space Treaty (1967) and the bilateral agreements, the research explores how arbitration, mediation and adjudication processes can address disputes arising from joint space endeavors. The study highlights the importance of structured legal and procedural frameworks in mitigating conflicts, ensuring compliance, and fostering longer-term cooperation between China and African nations in space exploration. Through this analysis, the study contributes to broader discussions on enhancing the efficacy of dispute resolution mechanisms in international space collaborations.

The legal framework for outer space governance, centered on the “Five Major Treaties”, is facing significant challenges. In the face of numerous variables that will shape the future order of outer space, an intrinsic demand for transformation has emerged within the governance of outer space. Under the leadership of the new wave of space technology revolutions and commercial innovations, outer space governance will undergo a profound transformation. New theories in space law will emerge, engage in long-term competition, and ultimately contribute to the formation of a completely new governance structure.

Space technology is an important driver of economic growth, and data from outer space provides a better life for ordinary people. One of the outstanding benefits of space data is remote sensing. Earth’s surface is continuously scanned by hundreds of remote sensing satellites, capturing images and data every minute of every day. Those satellite images and data are vital sources for spatial information technology. Although the technology has been used in many fields, the legal aspects related to its use have not been thoughtfully discussed. Especially, the issues regarding the role of international law and national law in protecting states from cross-border data availability and challenges to the use of technology and its data collection. This research paper addresses these issues by investigating the impact of technical and legal challenges on the stakeholders of spatial information technology. The study employs an analysis of the applicable laws regarding the use of spatial information technology and its societal aspects. The results reveal that access rights, privacy, intellectual property rights, and liability are major legal challenges to the government agencies, private entities and individuals, who are becoming both consumers and producers of spatial information technology. The applicable law to the use of spatial information technology is cyber law, also known as information technology law. Remote sensing law is related to the process of collecting space data for spatial information technology. Current threats from space data arise from its inherently local identification and dual-use. International law chooses not to prohibit space data processing if the data is anonymous and includes location information collected at a purely local level. Therefore, to mitigate risks from the use of spatial information technology, governments identify the use of spatial information as the subject of national law to provide regimes for data restriction and control. There are distinct different roles and interactions between international law and national law that govern data control, cross-border data flows and national security concerns. The findings underscore that regulatory solutions to the challenge of cross-border data flows are legal reform and a multilateral cooperation framework. One of the significant findings is that the state should align its neutral policy and represent awareness of mutual trust or open communication while making data available across borders. The success in developing a trusted framework for cross-border data flows relies on the state’s role at the international level. In conclusion, the authors opine that the impact and implications of the use of spatial information technology present similar legal challenges to the use of artificial intelligence and location intelligence, which lie in the responsibility of a data controller or the controllers who make decisions about processing activities.

The Outer Space Treaty (OST) remains a cornerstone of international space law, enshrining the principle of peaceful use for celestial bodies. However, ambiguities in its provisions, particularly regarding military activities and dual-use technologies, pose significant challenges in the 21st century. This paper examines the treaty’s limitations in addressing modern space militarization, commercial-military convergence, and resource exploitation. It critiques the lack of robust verification mechanisms and proposes clarifications to ensure sustainable and cooperative space exploration. The analysis highlights the urgent need for updated legal frameworks to govern private actors and emerging technologies while preserving the OST’s foundational principles. The paper evaluates recent policy initiatives to enhance space weapons regulations, including the Russo-Chinese treaty proposal to ban space-based weapons and the EU’s International Code of Conduct for Space. It concludes existing provisions indicate a reluctance to limit nuclear weapons in space, but are a milestone in regulating the arms race’s expansion. However, ambiguities persist regarding prohibited activities.

In 2022, China’s space station completed construction and entered the application and development phase. With the ISS set to decommission in 2030, China’s space station will become the sole low-orbit space station. The selection of astronauts from Hong Kong, Macao, and Pakistan highlights the necessity of establishing a clear code of conduct. Drawing on the ISS experience, China’s space station should establish a code of conduct (CoC) with a legal framework that respects international law and emphasizes peaceful use and mutual benefit. Against this backdrop, it is of importance to design a legal framework, addressing key issues including but not limited to, jurisdiction, ethical standards for research, intellectual property protection and international collaboration mechanisms. This article is among the first attempts to answer those questions.

Ownership is an increasingly important conflict in outer space at this moment in time. Despite the principle in the Outer Space Treaty (1967), that emphasizes the importance of all states' free access to outer space based on equality for exploration and use. Moreover, outer space including the Moon and other celestial bodies is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means. However, outer space activity is not free from sovereignty and jurisdiction after all. Anyway, the legal situation relating to space resource exploitation and utilization activities under the adoption of United Nations is a challenge. Some scholars implied that the Outer Space Treaty (1967) clearly prohibits appropriation of whole celestial bodies but is far less clear concerning the rights of over-extracted resources. Nevertheless, the Moon Agreement (1979) promotes the idea of property ownership of over-extracted resources. It permits states to collect and remove samples of lunar minerals and other substances for further interest in scientific investigation. The application of the Moon Agreement (1979) is not only to the Moon itself but to other celestial bodies, thus potentially covering the planets and asteroids where the mining potential is considered to be limitless. Under this circumstance, numerous countries, such as the United States, Luxembourg, The United Arab Emirates, and Japan have enacted legal regimes that glorify the rights of their entities in mineral resources in outer space. However, these regimes could be disputed under the international legal framework if countries have merely interpreted and applied their rights and obligations on a national level as they understand them. Therefore, this paper purports to clarify the ownership rights in outer space and analyze the purpose of the legal situation relating to space resource exploitation and utilization activities under the adoption of the United States, Luxembourg, The United Arab Emirates, and Japan.

The initiative to ban destructive direct-ascent anti-satellite (ASAT) missile testing, spearheaded by the U.S. and subsequently adopted by the UN General Assembly, represents a pivotal yet limited step in addressing the militarization of outer space. Tracing the historical evolution of ASAT technology since the Cold War, this paper examines the divergent state practices of major spacefaring nations—including the U.S., Russia, and India—highlighting their technological advancements and geopolitical motivations. Through an analysis of existing treaties, recent resolutions, and the persistent divide between western states and the China-Russia bloc over the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS), the study underscores the initiative’s inherent limitations in deterring comprehensive militarization. The paper concludes that sustainable space safety necessitates multilateral, legally binding agreements that transcend symbolic measures, should reconcile competing state interests. Achieving this requires global cooperation, compromise among major powers, and a reinvigorated commitment to the peaceful use of outer space enshrined in international law.